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ashram
In Hinduism, any of the four stages of life through which a "twice-born" (see upanayana) Hindu ideally will pass. These stages are: the student, who is devoted and obedient to his teacher; the householder, who supports his family and the priests and fulfills duties to the gods and ancestors; the hermit, who withdraws from society to pursue ascetic and yogic practices; and the homeless mendicant, who renounces all possessions and wanders from place to place begging for food. In English the word has come to mean a place for the pursuit of spiritual or religious disciplines, often under a guru.
Ayer
British philosopher. He taught at University College London (1946-59) and later at Oxford (1959-78). A proponent of logical positivism, he gained international notice in 1936 with his first book, Language, Truth and Logic, which drew on the ideas of the Vienna Circle and empiricism. His interests are reflected in the titles of his later works: The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge (1940), The Problem of Knowledge (1956), The Origins of Pragmatism (1968), Russell and Moore (1971), The Central Questions of Philosophy (1973), and Wittgenstein (1985).
Baer
Prussian-Estonian embryologist. Studying chick development with his friend Christian Pander (1794-1865), Baer expanded Pander's concept of germ-layer formation to all vertebrates, thereby laying the foundation for comparative embryology. He emphasized that embryos of one species could resemble embryos (but not adults) of another, and that the younger the embryo the greater the resemblance, a concept in line with his belief that development proceeds from simple to complex, from like to different. He also discovered the mammalian ovum. His On the Development of Animals (2 vols., 1828-37) surveyed all existing knowledge on vertebrate development and established embryology as a distinct subject of research.
beer
Alcoholic beverage made usually from malted barley, flavored with hops, and brewed by slow fermentation. Known from ancient times, beer was especially common in northern climates not conducive to grape cultivation for wine. It is produced by employing either a bottom-fermenting yeast, which falls to the bottom of the container when fermentation is completed, or a top-fermenting yeast, which rises to the surface. Lager beers (from lagern, "to store"), of German origin, are bottom-fermented and stored at a low temperature for several months; most are light in color, with high carbonation, medium hop flavor, and alcohol content of 3-5% by volume. Top-fermented beers, popular in Britain and incl. ale, stout, and porter, are characterized by a prominent head of released carbon dioxide and a sharper, more strongly hopped flavor than lagers; alcohol content is 4-6.5% by volume. See also malt.
Caere
Ancient city, Etruria. Located northwest of Rome near the modern city of Ceveteri, it was an important trading ...
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