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Boas
German-U.S. anthropologist, largely credited with establishing anthropology as an academic discipline in the U.S. Trained in physics and geography (PhD, 1881), Boas was part of an early scientific expedition to Baffin Island (1883-84), where he turned to studying Eskimo culture. He later studied native peoples of British Columbia, incl. the Kwakiutl. From 1896 to 1905 he directed the Jesup N. Pacific Expedition, which investigated the relationships between the aboriginal peoples of Siberia and N. America. His achievements in anthropology are virtually unrivaled. Before Boas, most anthropologists adhered to a relatively crude theory of sociocultural evolution, arguing that some peoples were inherently more civilized or developed than others. Boas argued that such views were ethnocentric, and that all human groups have actually evolved equally but in different ways. It is largely due to Boas that human differences are now attributed by anthropologists to historic "cultural" rather than genetic factors. Teaching at Columbia Univ. from 1896 until his death, he was a leading organizer of the profession in the U.S. and the mentor of R. Benedict, A. Kroeber, M. Mead, and E. Sapir. His books include The Mind of Primitive Man (1911), Primitive Art (1927), and Race, Language and Culture (1940).


Bouts
Netherlandish painter. Born in Haarlem, he was active in Louvain, where he was influenced by R. van der Weyden. His best-known works are a triptych altarpiece (1464) for the church of St. Peter in Louvain, its panels representing the Last Supper and four Old Testament scenes, and two huge panels representing a scene of secular justice (1470-75) for the city hall, intended as examples of justice for the Louvain town council. His treatment of his figures ranges from strong emotion expressed through symbolic gesture to great severity and restraint.


oats
Hardy cereal plant (Avena sativa), cultivated in temperate regions, that is able to live in poor soil. The edible starchy grain is used primarily as livestock feed, but is also processed into rolled oats and oat flour for human consumption. High in carbohydrates, oats also provide protein, fat, calcium, iron, and B vitamins. Oat straw is used for animal feed and bedding.


-->U-boat

German submarine ("undersea boat"). The first German submarine, the U-1, was built in 1905. By the eve of World War I, Germany possessed merchant U-boats over 300 ft. (90 m) long and capable of carrying 700 tons (635 metric tons) of cargo; these were fitted with torpedo tubes and deck guns for the war (by comparison, the "standard" submarine of World War I was only slightly over 200 ft, or 60 m, long.), and Germany became the first country to employ submarines in war. Its unrestricted U-boat warfare against merchant ships was largely responsible for U.S. entry into the war. In World War II the U-boat initially enjoyed great success, but Allied tactics eventually succeeded ...

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