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Pavlov
Russian physiologist. He is known chiefly for the concept of the conditioned reflex. In his classic experiment, he found that a hungry dog trained to associate the sound of a bell with food salivated at the sound even in the absence of food. He expanded on C. Sherrington's explanation of the spinal reflex. He also tried to apply his laws to human psychoses and language function. His ability to reduce a complex situation to a simple experiment and his pioneering studies relating human behavior to the nervous system laid the basis for the scientific analysis of behavior. After the Russian Revolution, he became an outspoken opponent of the Communist government. He won a 1904 Nobel Prize for his work on digestive secretions.


apology
In literature, an autobiographical form in which a defense is the framework for the author's discussion of his or her personal beliefs. Examples include Plato's Apology (4th cent. BC), in which Socrates answers his accusers by giving a history of his life and moral commitment, and J. H. Newman's Apologia pro Vita Sua (1864), an examination of the principles that inspired his conversion to Catholicism.


baboon
Any of five species of robust monkeys (genus Papio, or Chaeropithecus) of Arabia and sub-Saharan Africa. Baboons have a large head, cheek pouches, and a long, doglike muzzle. They walk on all fours, carrying the tail in a characteristic arch. They weigh 30-90 lbs (14-40 kg) and are about 20-45 in. (50-115 cm) long, excluding the tail (18-28 in., or 45-70 cm, long). Found mainly in drier savanna and rocky areas, they feed on a variety of plants and animals. Highly intelligent, they travel in large noisy troops, communicating by calls. They may destroy crops, and their enormous canine teeth and powerful limbs make them dangerous opponents.


balloon
Large airtight bag filled with hot air or a lighter-than-air gas such as helium or hydrogen that can rise and float in the atmosphere. Experimental attempts may have begun by 1709, but not until 1783 did J.-M. and J.-É . Montgolfier develop a fabric-bag balloon that would rise when filled with hot air. Balloons provided military aerial observation sites in the 19th cent. and were used in the 20th cent. by scientists such as A. Piccard to gather high-altitude data. The first round-the-world balloon flight was achieved in 1999 by Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones. See also airship.


Byblos
Ancient city, E Mediterranean coast. Located north of modern Beirut, it was occupied at least by the Neolithic period; extensive settlement developed during the 4th millennium BC. As the chief harbor for the export of cedar to Egypt, it was a great trading center. Papyrus received its early Greek name, byblos, from its export to the Aegean through Byblos; Bible means essentially "the (papyrus) book." Byblos has yielded almost all the known early Phoenician inscriptions, most from the 10th cent. ...

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