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Ockham
English Franciscan philosopher, theologian, and political writer. A late Scholastic thinker, he is regarded as the founder of nominalism, which denies that universals have any reality apart from individual things. With his passion for logic, he placed great trust in mankind's natural reason. As a theologian, he stressed the importance of the God of the creed, whose omnipotence determines the gratuitous salvation of humans. He believed that God's grace consists in giving without any obligation and is already profusely demonstrated in the creation of nature. See also Ockham's razor.
Oakland
City (pop., 1996 est.: 367,000), W California, on the E side of San Francisco Bay. Settled by the Spanish in 1820, it was incorporated as a city in 1854. In 1869 it was chosen as the terminus of the first transcontinental railroad, which led to the development of its deepwater port. It suffered damage and loss of life in the earthquake of 1989, which also damaged the Bay Bridge that connects it with San Francisco. Lake Merritt, near the central business district, is a wildfowl refuge surrounded by parkland. Several colleges are located there.
Sakhalin
Island, extreme E Russia. Together with the Kuril Islands, it forms an administrative region (pop., 1995: 648,000) of Russia. It is 589 mi (948 km) long, 16-100 mi (26-161 km) wide, and covers an area of 28,597 sq mi (74,066 sq km). Sakhalin was first settled by Russians in 1853, and it came under Russian control in 1875 when Japan ceded it in exchange for the Kuril Islands. Japan held the S part 1905-1945, then ceded it and the Kurils to the U.S.S.R. The economy is dominated by fishing, lumbering, coal mining, and the extraction of oil and natural gas in the north.
Sakharov
Russian nuclear physicist and human-rights advocate. He worked with I. Y. Tamm (1895-1971) to develop the Soviet Union's first hydrogen bomb, but in 1961 he opposed N. Khrushchev's plan to test a 100-megaton hydrogen bomb in the atmosphere. In 1968 he published in the West "Progress, Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom," which called for nuclear-arms reduction and criticized Soviet repression of dissidents. He and his wife, Yelena G. Bonner, continued to advocate civil liberties and reform in the Soviet Union. In 1975 Sakharov received the Nobel Peace Price but was forbidden to travel to Oslo to receive it. In 1980 he was exiled to the closed city Gorky (now Nizhniy Novgorod); his wife was exiled there in 1984. They were released in 1986 and returned to Moscow. Sakharov's honors were restored in 1989, and many of his causes became official policy under M. Gorbachev.
Zakharov
Russian ballet dancer, choreographer, teacher, and director. He studied at the Leningrad State (formerly Imperial) Ballet School and joined the Kiev Ballet in 1926. He later choreographed ballets for the Kirov Theater and various other companies, applying the Stanislavsky ...
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