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Mandel
French political leader. A member of a prosperous Jewish family, he served as a personal aide to G. Clemenceau (1906-9, 1917-20), in the National Assembly (1919-24, 1928-40), and in cabinet posts (1934-40). As minister of the interior (1940), he supported P. Reynaud's refusal to accept an armistice with Germany. Mandel was arrested in 1940, imprisoned in France and Germany, then returned to Paris in 1944, where he was shot on orders of the Vichy police chief.
Mandela
S. African black nationalist leader and statesman. The son of a Xhosa chief, Mandela qualified in law at the Univ. of Witwatersrand in 1942 and joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944. After the Sharpeville massacre (1960), he abandoned his nonviolent stance and helped found the "Spear of the Nation," the ANC's military wing. Arrested in 1962, he was sentenced to life imprisonment. He retained wide support among S. Africa's black population and became an international cause cé lè bre. Released by Pres. F. W. de Klerk in 1990, he replaced O. Tambo as president of the ANC in 1991. In 1993 Mandela and de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to end apartheid and bring about the transition to nonracial democracy. In 1994 he was elected president in the country's first all-race elections; by the time he stepped down in 1999, Mandela was the most universally respected figure of postcolonial Africa.
Mendel
Austrian botanist and plant experimenter. He became an Augustinian monk in 1843 and later studied at the Univ. of Vienna. In 1856, working in his monastery's garden, he began the experiments that led to his formulation of the basic principle of heredity. He crossed varieties of the garden pea that had maintained constant differences in such single alternative traits as tallness and dwarfishness, flower color, and pod form. He theorized that the occurrence of the visible alternative traits of the plants, in the constant varieties and in their descendants, was due to the occurrence of paired elementary units of heredity, now known as genes. What was new in Mendel's interpretation of his data was his recognition that genes obey simple statistical laws. His system proved to be of general application and is one of the basic principles of biology. He achieved fame only after his death, through the work of C. E. Correns, E. Tschermak von Seysenegg, and H. de Vries, who independently obtained similar results and found that both the experimental data and the general theory had been published 34 years previously.
Michelet
French nationalist historian. He taught history and philosophy before he was appointed head of the historical section of the Record Office in 1831. His time there provided him with unique resources for his life's work, the 17-volume Histoire de France (1833-67). His method, an attempt to resurrect the past by immersing his own personality in his narrative, resulted ...
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