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Austin
City (pop., 1996 est.: 541,000), capital of Texas. It was founded in 1835 as the village of Waterloo on the Colorado River in S central Texas. In 1839 it was made capital of the Republic of Texas and renamed to honor S. Austin; when Texas became a state in 1845, Austin remained its capital. As the home of the Univ. of Texas, it has expanded as a research and development center for defense and consumer industries. The L. B. Johnson Library is on the university campus.


justice
In philosophy, the concept of a proper proportion between a person's deserts (what is merited) and the good and bad things that befall or are allotted to him or her. Aristotle's discussion of the virtue of justice has been the starting point for almost all Western accounts. For him, the key element of justice is treating like cases alike, an idea that has set later thinkers the task of working out which similarities (need, desert, talent) are relevant. Aristotle distinguishes between justice in the distribution of wealth or other goods (distributive justice) and justice in reparation, as, for example, in punishing someone for a wrong he has done (retributive justice). The notion of justice is also essential in that of the just state, a central concept in political philosophy. See also law.


casting
Pouring of molten metal into a mold, where it solidifies into the shape of the mold. The process was well established in the Bronze Age, when it was used to form bronze pieces now found in museums. It is particularly valuable for the economical production of complex shapes, ranging from mass-produced parts for automobiles to one-of-a-kind production of statues, jewelry, or massive machinery. Most steel and iron castings (see cast iron) are poured into silica sand. For metals of lower melting point, such as aluminum or zinc, molds can be made of another metal or of sand. See also die casting, founding, investment casting, lost-wax casting, pattern making.


Cushing
U.S. surgeon. Born in Cleveland, he taught principally at Harvard Univ. and became known as the leading neurosurgeon of the early 20th cent., developing many procedures and techniques still basic to brain surgery and greatly reducing its mortality rate. The leading expert in the diagnosis and treatment of intracranial tumors, he was also the first to ascribe to pituitary-gland malfunction what is now known as Cushing's disease (see Cushing's syndrome). He wrote numerous scientific works, incl. a Life of Sir William Osler (1925, Pulitzer Prize).


cutting
In botany, a plant section originating from the stem, leaf, or root and capable of developing into a new plant. The cutting is usually placed in warm, moist sand. Many plants, especially horticultural and garden varieties, are propagated through cuttings; by the use of new techniques, many other plants formerly not susceptible to propagation through cuttings have more ...

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