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Freud
Austrian neuropsychologist, founder of psychoanalysis, and one of the major intellectual figures of the 20th cent. Trained in Vienna as a neurologist, Freud went to Paris in 1885 to study with J.-M. Charcot, whose work on hysteria led Freud to conclude that mental disorders might be caused purely by psychological rather than organic factors. Returning to Vienna (1886), Freud collaborated with the physician Josef Breuer (1842-1925) in further studies on hysteria, resulting in the development of some key psychoanalytic concepts and techniques, incl. free association, the unconscious, resistance (later defense mechanisms), and neurosis. In 1899 he published The Interpretation of Dreams, in which he analyzed the complex symbolic processes underlying dream formation: he proposed that dreams are the disguised expression of unconscious wishes. In his controversial Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), he delineated the complicated stages of psychosexual development (oral, anal, and phallic) and the formation of the Oedipus complex. During World War I, he wrote papers that clarified his understanding of the relations between the unconscious and conscious portions of the mind and the workings of the id, ego, and superego. Freud eventually applied his psychoanalytic insights to such diverse phenomena as jokes and slips of the tongue, ethnographic data, religion and mythology, and modern civilization. Works of note include Totem and Taboo (1913), Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920), The Future of an Illusion (1927), and Civilization and Its Discontents (1930). Freud fled to England when the Nazis invaded Austria in 1939; he died shortly thereafter. Despite the relentless and often compelling challenges mounted against virtually all of his ideas, both in his lifetime and after, Freud has remained one of the most influential figures in contemporary thought.


bread
Baked food product made of flour or meal that is moistened, kneaded into a dough, and often fermented using yeast. A major food since prehistoric times, bread has been made in various forms using a variety of ingredients and methods throughout the world. Flat, unleavened bread, the earliest form, is still eaten in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. The principal grains used in such breads are corn, barley, millet, buckwheat, wheat, and rye. Raised bread, common in Europe and the U.S., is usually made of wheat or rye. Both contain the elastic protein substance gluten, which traps gas produced during fermentation, helping the bread to rise. Other ingredients include milk or water, shortening (fats, butter, oils), salt, and sugar. Bread is a source of complex carbohydrates and B vitamins (see vitamin B complex); whole-wheat bread contains more protein, vitamins, minerals, and fiber than white-flour bread. See also baking.


Bremen
City (pop., 1996 est.: 549,000), NW Germany. Located on the Weser River, it was established as a ...

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