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Celts
Early Indo-European people who from the 2nd millennium BC to the 1st cent. BC spread over much of Europe. They were absorbed into the Roman empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Early archaeological evidence (c.700 BC) comes from the Hallstatt site in Austria. People of this Iron Age culture controlled trade routes along the Rhô ne, Seine, Rhine, and Danube rivers. As they moved west, Hallstatt warriors introduced the use of iron, which helped them dominate other Celtic tribes. By the mid-5th cent. BC, the La Tè ne culture emerged along the Rhine and moved into E Europe and the British Isles. Celts sacked Rome c.390 BC and raided the whole peninsula, then settled south of the Alps (Cisalpine Gaul) and menaced Rome until they were defeated in 225 BC. In the Balkans, they sacked Delphi in 279 BC but were defeated by the Aetolians. They crossed to Anatolia and looted until they were subdued by Attalus I c.230 BC. Rome controlled Cisalpine Gaul by 192, and in 124 took territory beyond the Alps. In Transalpine Gaul, from the Rhine and the Alps west, the Celts were pressed by Germanic tribes from the west and Romans from the south. By 58 Julius Caesar had begun campaigns to annex all of Gaul. Celtic settlement of Britain and Ireland is deduced from archaeological and linguistic evidence. The Celtic social system comprised a warrior aristocracy and freemen farmers; Druids, with magico-religious duties, ranked higher than warriors. They had a mixed farming economy. Their oral literary composition was highly developed, as was their art; they manufactured gold and silver jewelry, swords and scabbards, and shields inlaid with enamel.


clef
(French: "key") Musical-notation symbol at the beginning of a staff to indicate the pitch of the notes on the staff. Clefs were originally letters, identifying letter-named pitches, that were affixed to one or more of the staff's lines (thus providing a "key" to their identity). Knowing the identity of a single line permitted the musician to identify all the other lines and spaces above and below. Clefs were first regularly used in the 12th cent. The Gothic letter forms of G and F evolved into the modern treble and bass clefs, respectively; the letter C evolved into the rarer alto, tenor, baritone, and soprano clefs.


Cleitias
Greek vase painter and potter. An outstanding master of the Archaic period, he executed the decorations on the Franç ois Vase (c.570 BC), discovered in 1844 in an Etruscan tomb. Painted in the black-figure style (see black-figure pottery), the large vase, signed and decorated with more than 200 figures, is among the greatest treasures of Greek art. Other vases and fragments attributed to him are in the Acropolis Museum, Athens.


left
In political science, the portion of the political spectrum associated with socialism. The term derives from the seating arrangement of the French revolutionary ...

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